Table 1 Elements of the IDI school model and their relationship with previous research approaches

 Visions of using digital technology

Research on technology as adoption of an innovation in school; research on school improvement and change

A shared vision is needed for continuous school improvement.

Cuban et al. (2001); Twining et al. (2013)

 Consensus about the vision

Research on school improvement and change

A consensus of the vision enables collaboration directed to a same goal.

Leclerc et al. (2012)

 Intentional development orientation

Research on innovation applied in school context

Intentional orientation is one of the corner stones for innovations.

Creemers and Reezigt (2005); Leclerc et al. (2012); OECD (2015); Rogers (2003)

 Shared leadership

Research on school improvement and change

Shared leadership supports teachers’ participation and engagement in school-level activities by sharing the responsibility to several members of the community.

Facer (2012); Harris (2002a); Leclerc et al. (2012); OECD (2015); Spillane et al. (2004); Resnick and Spillane (2006)

 Principal’s networking

Research on school improvement and change

Networking provides new perspectives and in this way, promotes the creation of improvements.

Hargreaves and Fink (2003); Harris (2010).

 The role of the principal

Research on school improvement and change

Principal’s role is to manage, motivate, organise and involve the staff in atmosphere for collaboration and experimentation.

DuFour and Mattos (2013); Earley (2010); Harris (2002a); Rogers (2003); Wong and Li (2011)

 Pedagogical collaboration and sharing of expertise

Research on school improvement and change

Pedagogical collaboration and sharing supports teachers’ professional development as well as collaborative improvement of pedagogical practices

Fullan (2001); Harris (2002b); Leclerc et al. (2012); Pedder and MacBeath (2008)

 Development practices

Research on school improvement and change; research on innovation applied in school context

Teachers’ development practices are an effective way to improve pupils learning and a way to improve teacher expertise.

Bakkenes et al. (2010); Harris (2002b); Messmann and Mulder (2011); Rogers (2003)

 Networking of teachers

Research on school improvement and change

Networking opens the isolated teacher profession to new ideas and thinking. It is necessary for innovations.

Chapman (2008); Scimeca et al. (2009)

 Perceptions of using digital technology in education

Research on technology as adoption of an innovation in school; research on learning as knowledge creation

Teachers’ perceptions of using technology affects the ways teachers use it with pupils. Perceptions are often more ‘advanced’ than the actual practices.

Bereiter (2002); Donnelly et al. (2011); Hakkarainen et al. (2001); Hong and Sullivan (2009); Scardamalia and Bereiter (2006)

 Pedagogical practices with digital technology

Research on technology as adoption of an innovation in school; research on learning as knowledge creation

Pedagogical practices with technology should focus on complex issues and activities like knowledge creation and problem solving in order to advance pupils’ general competencies.

Bell (2010); Donnelly et al. (2011); Hakkarainen et al. (2001); OECD (2014)

 Common knowledge practices with technology

Research on learning as knowledge creation; research on knowledge work organisations

Common knowledge practices support learning and development in an organisation; in school, common practices help teachers and pupils because they give ‘standard’ models and ways of working.

Brown and Duguid (2001); Scardamalia and Bereiter (1999)

 Physical premises

Data on previous phases of the model, research on learning environments

The school has sufficient and flexible premises for various pedagogical use

Cleveland and Fisher (2014); Gislason (2010)

 Pupils’ involvement in school level activities

Research on learning as knowledge creation; action research tradition; data on previous phases of the model

Students are active members in the school community, not only as ‘objects of teaching’.

Katsenou et al. 2015; Scardamalia and Bereiter (1999) Svanbjörnsdóttir, Macdonald and Frímannsson (2016)

 School-level networking

Research on technology as adoption of an innovation in school; research on school improvement and change

A networking school opens out to the society and thus receives new kinds of collaboration and learning opportunities for pupils and teachers.

Brown and Duguid (2001); Chapman (2008); Scimeca et al. (2009)

 Utility of technical resources

Research on technology as adoption of an innovation in school

The school has resources for teaching and learning with digital technology; and the resources are organised meaningful way helping teachers and pupils in using technology.

OECD (2014); Wong and Li (2011)

 Pupils’ digital competence

Research on technology as adoption of an innovation in school

Pupils’ digital competence is acknowledged at school; pupils use technology in multiple ways, also at school and for school work. Learning digital technology in school ensures relevant competence for further education.

OECD (2010, 2011, 2014)

 Teachers’ digital competence

Research on technology as adoption of an innovation in school

Teachers’ digital competence is sufficient for carrying out pedagogical practices with technology; they can also support pupils’ evolving digital competence.

OECD, 2010

 Pedagogical and technical training and support

Research on technology as adoption of an innovation in school

Teachers get various kind of pedagogical and technical training and support at local and school level. In this way, teachers can improve their professional competence.

Hakkarainen et al. 2001