The impact of annotation on concrete and abstract visual representations in science education: testing the expertise reversal effect

Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning

Table 1 Descriptive statistics with means and standard deviations for study 1 (N = 108)

	Annotation	Visual representation	Mean	SD	N
Comprehension	Annotation	Abstract	6.92	0.68	26
		Concrete	5.11	1.57	27
		Total	6.00	1.51	53
	Non-annotation	Abstract	4.78	1.60	27
		Concrete	5.75	1.11	28
		Total	5.27	1.44	55
Problem Solving	Annotation	Abstract	7.27	0.72	26
		Concrete	5.15	1.56	27
		Total	6.19	1.61	53
	Non-annotation	Abstract	4.89	1.21	27
		Concrete	5.43	1.26	28
		Total	5.16	1.25	55
Z_Intrinsic	Annotation	Abstract	− 2.86	0.72	26
		Concrete	− 1.31	0.73	27
		Total	− 0.20	0.72	53
	Non-annotation	Abstract	− 0.39	0.92	27
		Concrete	0.21	0.90	28
		Total	− 0.08	0.95	55
Z_Extraneous	Annotation	Abstract	− 0.41	0.35	26
		Concrete	− 0.71	0.82	27
		Total	− 0.57	0.65	53
	Non-annotation	Abstract	0.26	0.81	27
		Concrete	0.75	1.17	28
		Total	0.51	1.03	55
Z_Germane	Annotation	Abstract	0.47	1.04	26
		Concrete	0.23	0.78	27
		Total	0.35	0.92	53
	Non-annotation	Abstract	− 0.21	0.63	27
		Concrete	0.22	0.56	28
		Total	0.01	0.63	55